Indoor Air Quality in the Most Crowded Public Places of Tehran: An Inhalation Health Risk Assessment

Satisfying indoor air quality in public environments has become essential cities. In the present study, PM2.5, CO2, NO2, SO2, nicotine, and BTEX have been assessed 12 categories of places. The highest average concentrations SO2 were observed waterpipe cafés (233, 29.6, 5.1 µg/m3), whereas lowest found health clubs hospitals, respectively. Moreover, concentration varied from 69.5 µg/m3 (passenger terminals) to 1739.2 (elderly care centers). Given cafés, ranging approximately 11.0 50 µg/m3. mean hazard quotient (HQ) Hazard Index (HI) for benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene calculated all types environments, results showed that amount HQ HI none places was more than 1. Furthermore, lifetime cancer risk (LTCR) exceeded guideline threshold restaurants, elderly centers, passenger terminals, movie theaters, beauty salons. findings our study indicate most settings within Tehran city is not acceptable necessitates appropriate management. These underscore importance monitoring implementing effective strategies mitigate exposure pollutants.